章節 90: The Jefferson Presidency
Excerpt from The Founding Fathers Series: Thomas Jefferson
Published in 2005, written by the Federal University of Virginia
"Our nation was forged in fire and crafted with the most promising ideals. It is a creation that will not be easily broken." -Thomas Jefferson during the Philadelphia Riots, Founding Father and the second president of the United States.
"The Jefferson presidency began a new era in the United States, an era that followed a period of prosperity and stability in the United States. The first president of the United States, President Samuel Kim, was a popular president with widespread support that created the foundations of the federal government and the republic. As such, when President Thomas Jefferson entered office in 1789, he was met with high expectations from both the public and the members of the government. Elected with 99 electoral votes out of the 96 needed to be elected (the total electoral votes rose to 191 during the Kim presidency due to the admission of Maine, Kentucky, Vermont, Georgia, and Hisigi as states), Jefferson was sworn into office on a far closer margin than Kim (who was elected with 115 in his first term and 161 in his second term). However, Jefferson was undoubtedly one of the most influential and important figures during the republic's early days.
In his last Speech of the Union, President Kim warned of the dangers ahead for the republic and reminded the nation that the republic would only survive if the states worked together despite their differences. He stated that he had no doubts about the formation of parties but asked the people to "remain civil and open-minded to others, even if they were in a different party." As such, when the 1788 presidential elections rolled around, the candidates contending for the presidency restrained themselves from personal insults or snides and utilized the precedent set by President Kim for their campaigns (by posting their policies and proposals publicly before the election). In total, four major candidates ran for the presidency (all under different parties): Thomas Jefferson, Archibold Bulloch, John Jay, and Salem Poor.
Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of Research and Education under the Kim administration, was perhaps the most well-known public figure out of the four candidates. Jefferson was described as an "unimpressive man physically, yet a brilliant orator that captivated the crowd." He was one of the strongest proponents of the Federal Education Act of 1781 and contributed significantly to seeing the act implemented nationwide. As the leading candidate for the Republican Party, a party that was considered a "moderate" party by the public, Jefferson was much more in favor of state rights than the first president. However, he (and his party) also saw that the programs run by the government under Kim were widely popular (as the departments were excellent sources of employment and Jefferson's own department saw the development of technologies that improved the lives of farmers and industrialists). Thus he cautiously campaigned on a platform of greater autonomy for the states while simultaneously continuing the policies started under the Kim administration. While Jefferson was an agricultural man, he was not blind to the fact that the United States economy was climbing upward thanks to its growing industrial sector. So even though he favored policies that promoted agriculture (such as a lower excise tax, improved infrastructure for the transport of grain, and more funding towards the development of agricultural technology and doctrines), he also pushed forward policies that boosted the industrial sectors as well (such as greater governmental subsidies in new mills and factories, along with the continuation of the national bank).
Additionally, Jefferson placed himself as a "unifying figure" and portrayed himself as a compromising, understanding man that would work with other political parties to further the interests of the United States as a whole. He rejected slavery but promised to provide proper compensation for all slave owners (higher than the compensation promised by President Kim). Jefferson guaranteed that western states would see more focus from the federal government if he was elected into office. He also appealed to both white and minority voters, carrying himself as a man that would further the equality policies carried out by President Kim. Due to his name recognition and his role as the Secretary of Research and Education (during his time as the Secretary of the R&E, the department developed the cotton gin, the "Yankee" loom, and a few other critical inventions), Jefferson quickly became the front runner for the 1788 election.
John Jay was the next forerunner in the election, and he was the leading candidate for the Unionist Party, a party that described itself as the "heir" to President Kim and his agenda. The Unionist Party was popular across the United States, though its biggest support base was in New England. A firm believer in a powerful federal government and a former Senator for New York, John Jay, pushed for a stronger federal government and sought to bring the nation further together. He fully supported President Kim's departments and programs and sought to expand upon the foundations that the first president built. Believing that industry was the key to edging out Britain economically, his policies were much more favorable to industrialists, bankers, and traders. He campaigned for much stiffer protections for American industry and an emphasis on the strengthening of the national bank (which was created under the Kim presidency). Jay, an ardent believer of secularism and democratic traditions, agreed with Jefferson on the finer points of equal rights and supported the Bill of Rights without much opposition. However, he sought to toughen the restrictions on obtaining citizenship, as Jay believed that an easy path to citizenship could destabilize the nation and harm the formation of a proper "American identity." Unlike Jefferson, Jay was firm in maintaining the governmental policies to end slavery with the same compensation offered by President Kim. He believed that giving slave owners a chance to renegotiate the terms for ending slavery would "delay the process, and at worst, maintain the practice." With the sudden unrest in regard to slavery and the rise of slave owners desiring to seek a delay to the end of slavery, his fear was only reaffirmed, and his stance on the issue hardened. Additionally, he believed that the government should "do everything in its powers to uplift the very people it has oppressed for decades" and approved of President Kim's Freedmen Act. Displaying himself as the successor of President Kim's legacy and a supporter of a stronger, more united United States, John Jay became a formidable opponent to Thomas Jefferson.
Archibold Bulloch was a relative unknown before the 1788 presidential election. He was the governor of Georgia before his bid for the presidency and was a lawyer before his governorship. However, when he entered the fray as a member of the Whig Party (a party that stood for less federal powers and more autonomy to the states), he accused Jefferson of having "no firm ground to stand upon" and placed himself as a person that genuinely stood for the interests of farmers and those that supported a small government. An avid conservative, he was against raising additional tariffs and campaigned to have them lowered, along with a much lower excise tax than Jefferson proposed. Additionally, he believed that the federal government was growing at an alarming rate and wanted to roll back some of the policies that "wasted the Treasury and expended far too many resources." He appealed to southern voters in general by promising more extraordinary powers to the states and an extension on slavery if needed while at the same time allowing free African Americans to maintain their current rights and holdings (though he opposed the Freedmen Act). He called for the closure of the national bank and an end to "mass immigration that is filling the states with immigrants that can barely speak English." Overall, Bulloch was the most conservative and right-wing candidate in the 1788 election, and his abysmal vote count significantly reshaped the Whig Party's policies.
The most surprising surprise candidate, however, was Salem Poor. An African American man from Massachusetts with a long and prestigious career (ranging from a Brigadier General in the Continental Marines during the Revolutionary War to the Secretary of Defense under President Kim), there was no doubt that if Poor were white, then he would have been one of the top two candidates for the presidency. Running as an Independent, he was one of the most experienced candidates with a thorough and detailed set of policies. His policies aligned in many ways to Jay's policies but made the public aware of the growing unstable situation in Hispanola (now modern-day Republic of Haiti) and sought to provide aid for refugees "fleeing slavery and oppression." Additionally, he supported more widespread education for the black population and a stronger support net for poor and disfranchised people. While his skin color played against him in the 1788 election (he only won votes in South Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina), Poor publicly stated after his defeat that he ran to "prove that a Negro can run for president and provide hope for a future generation." Indeed, Poor's actions would inspire a new generation of African Americans in the United States (with the first African American president being elected into office in 1828). And while he ran against Jefferson during the election, he was invited back to serve in the cabinet as the Secretary of Defense, an invitation that he accepted (creating a precedent for Secretaries to retain their positions depending on their merit even with a new president).
Total Electoral Votes:
Thomas Jefferson: 102
John Jay: 78
Archibold Bullock: 5
Salem Poor: 11
196 Electoral Votes in total, 99 Electoral votes to win
In the highly contested 1788 election, Jefferson came out on top with a close victory over the other candidates. While Bulloch and Poor did divide some southern electoral votes amongst themselves, Jefferson ultimately prevailed due to his more moderate policy that appealed to a wide range of voters, name recognition, and his role in the development of ARPA and the Department of Research and Education. Additionally, he met with voters personally and appeared in public often to discuss policies and his campaign, which gave him a boost in support as voters compared him to President Kim. With support from every state, Jefferson managed to slip past Jay with a tight majority. Thankfully, none of the other candidates contested the election results and conceded the election peacefully, allowing the first peaceful transfer of power in the United States. President Kim himself personally congratulated Jefferson on his victory and invited him to stay in the Presidental Mansion in Philadelphia to adjust to the role of the president and familiarize himself with the workings of the government before being officially sworn in, which Jefferson graciously accepted (the practice is still in force today). Along with Vice President James Madison (who Jefferson considered a close friend and capable politician), the Jefferson presidency prepared to take office in February.
When President Kim departed with fanfare and Jefferson entered office on February 10th of 1789, the future seemed brighter than ever for the United States. While the election was close, the peaceful transfer of power, another successful election, and the rapid growth of the population and economy contributed to a positive outlook for the United States. However, that positive outlook was greatly challenged within just the first year of the Jefferson Presidency. Immediately, the president was thrown into three formidable crises that needed immediate attention within the first year.
The first crisis was the French Revolution, which erupted just days before Jefferson officially took office. After the Treaty of Paris, which saw the end of hostilities between France and Great Britain, France was in a precarious financial situation. France was nearly bankrupt from the war, and along with terrible harvests, rocketing food prices, and the disruption of trade in the Caribbean, the nation was at a knife's edge. When King Louis XVI attempted to prevent the nation from collapsing by calling a General Estate, the Third Estate (composed of the "common" citizenry) was excluded and edged out by the First (clergy) and Second (nobility) Estates. When the situation in France did not improve, and the conditions worsened, the Third Estate erupted into revolution. Marquis de Lafayette, a former Brigadier General of the Continental Marines and a Revolutionary War hero released the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen," a declaration that called for equality and political rights in France. The Declaration, followed by the Storming of the Bastille, launched a period of unrest and civil war in France as King Louis XVI attempted to restore peace and order while revolutionaries led by Lafayette attempted to reform the crumbling French government and finances. The Revolution was met with both celebration and skepticism by the American public. Some called for full support of the French revolutionaries, as Lafayette's Declaration was similar to that of the Declaration of Independence. The supporters of the Revolution often referred to as the "Interventionists," sought to create a potential republican ally in Europe and support a nation with similar founding ideals to the United States. The Unionists were the most in favor of "intervening" in the French Revolution and providing aid to the revolutionaries. However, others were skeptical and wary of participating in a conflict in Europe and were hesitant to provoke the backlash of other European nations (none of which were republics, or democratic for that matter). The "Americanists" (mainly backed by Republicans and Whigs) desired for the government to retain its full focus on the United States and allow the Revolution to carry out by itself. There was a distinct lack of interest in French affairs, especially since France was reluctant in their support the United States during the Revolutionary War. As a result, the Americanists formed a bigger following than the Interventionists (it is important to note that these were not political parties, merely labels given to the groups during this time period). However, before President Jefferson could even resolve the issue, the consequences of the French Revolution rocked the Americas.
The second crisis erupted in the Hispanola Revolt, a civil war between the northern and southern parts of the island. The northern parts of Hispanola were devastated during the Anglo-French War of 1776. Many plantations were still in disarray, and slaves were influenced by the tales of the "Promise Land" (the United States) in the north. As a result, when the news of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen arrived in Hispanola (which guaranteed the abolishment of slavery), slaves in the northern parts of the colony rose in rebellion. Acquiring weapons and ammunition left behind by the British and French during the war, thousands of slaves flocked to the ideas promised by the Declaration and declared the establishment of a free Hispanola colony (that was still loyal to France). This was met with severe hostility from plantation owners in the South, and both sides clashed over control of the island by mid-1789. With the French monarch occupied by the chaos in France itself, the French authorities and plantation owners on Hispanola saw themselves at a bitter standstill against former slaves that demanded rights and opportunities as citizens. The news of the Revolt shocked the United States, and debates split the nation even further on the issue. As the issue with the French Revolution, many saw the crisis as a potential prolonged conflict that could drag the United States into another period of war for years. While there was support to help fleeing slaves settle in American territories (indeed, approximately 60,000 slaves would make the journey north due to the Revolt and settle in the Florida Territory and the reorganized Mississippi Territory), the question of intervention loomed over the country.
The third, and most controversial crisis, was the court case New York v. Von Steuben (1789), which was decided on September 1st of, 1789. The case involved Inspector General Fredrich Von Steuben, who was an essential figure in the United States Army and controlled much of the organization and logistics of the nation's young military. One of General Von Steuben's neighbors witnessed the general engaging in homosexual acts with another man while trespassing on his property and immediately reported it to the police. Upon receiving the report, the police arrested Von Steuben and his partner (a young lieutenant in the United States Army) and charged him with sodomy, which was punishable by death according to New York laws. Von Steuben appealed and stated that his Fifth Amendment right had been violated, as he was engaging in homosexual acts privately at home, and the government overreached its boundaries to invade his privacy. The Appellate Court agreed with Von Steuben, but the State Supreme Court overturned the ruling made by the Appellate Court. As a result, the case reached the highest court of the land, the United States Supreme Court. Despite the controversial nature of the case, the Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice John Rutledge, agreed to hear the case. The hearing for the case took several months and was a much-discussed topic throughout the nation. Most of the population condemned Von Steuben's actions and believed that the charges against him were valid as he was carrying out an illegal act (despite the Fifth Amendment protecting one's right to privacy). A very small minority, with President Kim one of the most vocal members (after he was out of office), believed that Von Steuben's rights had been violated and rejected an intrusion into one's privacy through the law as it created a "dangerous precedent for the government to invade a citizen's privacy in the name of justice and safety" (stated by Kim in New York Times article). In a stunning 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court ruled that Von Steuben's Fifth Amendment right was, indeed, violated and overturned the New York Supreme Court's decision regarding the case. Chief Justice Rutledge, who wrote the majority opinion for the case, stated that while the Fourth Amendment supported the doctrine of "reasonable suspicion" for the police to use to carry out an arrest or a search, the majority ruled that the illegal invasion of privacy carried out under New York's laws were unconstitutional. As written in the opinion, "While it is clear that Mr. Von Steuben violated New York's laws regarding sodomy, the fact that his privacy was invaded can not be ignored. The laws state that sodomy is illegal in all forms. However, it can not be expected that the state of New York can and will invade every citizen's home to enforce this law. Due to this, the Supreme Court finds the sodomy laws in New York as a violation of the Fifth Amendment, an amendment that guarantees an individual's right to privacy, and firmly rejects the notion that the members of law enforcement can and should invade any homes at whim to enforce the sodomy laws."
The ruling "caught the nation on fire." Riots broke out across the nation against the ruling made by the Supreme Court, and protests rocked the Supreme Court Hall in Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Riots, a series of riots that erupted from September 12th to October 2nd, saw widespread unrest and dissatisfaction with the judicial system and the ruling government. Even the Presidential Mansion came under fire as rocks destroyed several windows at the front of the mansion and the Secret Service came under attack from angry mobs. This period of unrest marked the end of the peaceful era under the Kim Presidency and rocked the nation into its first real test of unity and stability. With the eruption of riots and protests around the country, other dissatisfied groups also took to the streets to protest government policies (ranging from slavery to minority rights).
President Jefferson was thrown into the fire despite his relative inexperience. Yet, his actions and policies would cement his legacy as one of the greatest presidents in American history.
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