บท 88: Capitalism! (April-June, 1918)
King of Madagaskar]
Queen Ranavalona III of Madagaskar had died on May 23, 1917, after suffering a stroke at age 55.
For years the queen practically did not rule, since Merina / Madagaskar as protectorate was de-facto controlled by the Russian Empire of Tsar Alexander III and Tsar Nicholas II, supported by elites and other local collaborators (product of years of Russian influence in Madagaskar, we talk about merchants, noble-political elites, military officers and Orthodox Malagasy, among others).
With this situation in mind, Tsar Nicholas II practically blocked Merina's line of succession, preventing relatives of Ranavalona III from acceding to the throne, creating an interregnum.
During this interregnum, the Malagasy autonomy led by the Malagasy representative in Moscow and a National Assembly, came to a vote to appoint Tsar Nicholas II as monarch of Madagaskar in its entirety on April 5, 1918 (Merina was a part of Madagaskar , southern regions were legally outside the jurisdiction of the Merina crown, but the Russian Empire could ignore this due to its colonization-vassalization of the southern part).
Obviously Tsar Nicholas II accepted this, adding a new title to his list (which included Emperor of All-Russia, King of Czechoslovakia, King of Hungary, etc.) and the Duma did not make much opposition.
Tsar Nicholas II then restored the normal functions of Madagaskar, on the one hand appointing a new Governor-General and calling elections for the Malagasy representative in Moscow (autonomy of Madagaskar within the Russian Empire and its colonial empire).
The local elites weren't touched by Tsar Nicholas II, so everything was pretty good. In reality there was not much opposition to the movement after years of Russian influence promoting allies and pro-Russian sentiments.
Orthodoxy had become the most important Christian branch on the island (although traditional religions were obviously still the most notable religion-set of beliefs) and many de facto official-administrators had more loyalty to Russia than to the old monarchy.
Attempts to restore the native Malagasy monarchy have failed from 1918 onwards after Nicholas II was appointed king of Madagaskar.
Leaving aside legal aspects, the tsar soon turned to other issues, both in the Russian Empire proper and protectorate-colonies, including Madagaskar.
Madagaskar had mainly had a revolution and important reform in its agricultural sector (technological-technical modernization of agriculture, Madagaskar being a region with rich and varied soils, this was very useful for many crops, although the island was still vulnerable to certain risks, such as weather-related accidents or possible infestations).
Agriculture de-facto made up most of the Malagasy economy (and still in modern times makes up a significant part).
The reduction in the price of coffee now that it was a 'luxury product' (with a small recovery, but was still 'luxurious' in the early post-Great Depression years) and some other products was a blow to that economy.
Russia sustained this relatively well through its joint policies with Ethiopia (which, under Russia's guidance, produced a lot of cheap early coffee makers).
But obviously it was necessary to evolve in the Malagasy economy.
Especially now Russia has focused on investment in the mining sector (of enormous wealth in Madagaskar) and reinvestment in certain key industries, which in the local case, was the textile sector.
With this came the accompaniment of an increase in the quality of basic services and modernization of the local armed forces (learning from the Second Great War).
Madagaskar had a remarkable growth, when it comes to speed, but has obviously never been a regional colossus for various reasons.
Among them were the long-standing lack of unity of the island, technological problems, European colonialism-imperialism in various parts of Africa, neo-colonialism, and much stronger competitors in certain sectors.
Madagaskar, being the largest island in Africa, should not be underestimated, but Madagaskar simply cannot move much within the continent and the region (outside of being a commercial center and exporter-products of certain goods).
*******
[New African Territories]
* [Eritra]
Eritrea for many (especially foreigners) and Eritra (Эритра) for the Russian authorities, the name comes from the Greek term Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα or Erythra Thalassa, ancient name of the Red Sea.
For a long time the region was mainly under local control, until it fell under French control until the Russo-Ethiopian intervention in the Sudanese crisis.
The crisis marked the union of the territory of Eritra with the Ethiopian Empire (Abyssinia), in exchange for North Sudan joining the Emirate of Ha'il.
While de-jure (legally) Eritra was under the control of the central Ethiopian government, the truth is that the weakness of Emperor Iyasu V meant that the region was actually controlled by the Russian Empire and its influence. Influence and control rooted in the Russian colony of Sagallo.
The truth is that Eritra was 'vital' for the Russian Colonial Empire, the Russians wanted to continue ensuring Ethiopian dependence on Russian capital, therefore the Russian Empire continued to control the output of Ethiopian products to the Red Sea and the World Ocean.
Which was done mainly from Eritra and Sagallo.
Of course, domination is not exactly easy, it required effort.
That is why Russia immediately put efforts into the integration of the region on a commercial and social level. Russia subsidized the construction of railways, the modernization of agriculture and the modernization of Eritra's ports.
Instead, the central government of Addis Ababa dealt with bureaucratic and state affairs, making deals with local leaders, supporting charitable measures, building schools, hospitals and other services. In other words, the social integration of Eritrea in Ethiopia (conditioning the population to believe in common Ethiopian citizenship).
In short, the construction of local tangible and intangible infrastructure to control the region in the medium-long term.
Of course Russia is the one that benefited the most from this treaty, since in exchange for its services, Russia was able to force the Ethiopian Empire to give Russia important concessions in Eritra.
Through which, Russia in essence controlled the de-facto territory, thanks to its control over vital infrastructure, capital transfer (Russian capital moving investments and local affairs) and economic resources of the region.
Like many other regions, it starts from the very basics.
In part, the agriculture that Russia was helping to modernize through modern equipment and education associated with the agricultural sector. Eritra produces sorghum, millet, barley, wheat, legumes, vegetables, fruits, sesame and flax (and even others like coffee), as well as cattle, sheep, goats and camels.
But what most interested Russia of course were the Ethiopian concessions on Eritrea's mineral resources, since the region possessed significant deposits of gold, silver, copper and zinc.
Russia also invested in the cement industry, but it was not as important in Eritra's early years as mining or agriculture was.
* [South Sudan]
The term 'Sudan' comes from the Arabic language, and refers to an area south of the Sahara called bilād as-sūdān (بلاد السودان, Land of the Blacks).
On the one hand there was 'North Sudan' which was part of the Ha'il Emirate and on the other hand this South Sudan (южный Судан / yuzhnyy Sudan), which was converted into a new territory of the Russian Colonial Empire after the Sudanese crisis.
The region was a very recent colony and undoubtedly needed work from Russia for its integration into the Russosphere.
South Sudan is inhabited by diverse ethno-cultures such as the Dinka, Nuer, Bari, and Azande. In addition to a certain influence-presence of the Shilluk (inhabitants of various regions of the Nile).
The region depended mostly on agriculture, but possessed such remarkable resources as oil, iron, copper, chromium, zin, tungsten, silver, gold, diamond, wood, limestone, and hydroelectric power sources.
In short, like many other parts of the world, an immensely rich but underdeveloped region.
The Russian Colonial Empire set out to change this, all beginning with Russian troops already in semi-pacified territory. Through these troops, Tsar Nicholas II set out to enter into talks with local leaders to keep the region quiet for the time being.
In exchange for these talks, the tsar proposed major reforms, and most importantly, money (and weapons), to local leaders in exchange for loyalty. Reforms that included autonomy for South Sudan once the time was right.
With the loyalty of important local leaders, Tsar Nicholas II and the Russian colonial authorities could begin to carry out their important reforms.
The first thing was to establish an important logistics-infrastructure line between Ethiopia, South Sudan and Kenya. The military present in the region and new native workers worked there.
Through this infrastructure, Sudanese products could reach Russian or allied ports, which would be very important for the economic development of the region.
In addition, with simpler logistics, bureaucrats and settlers could arrive to establish other important improvements together with local workers.
Among them mainly roads and new settlements along grasslands and the White Nile (which served as the colony's main vein). The swamps and tropical forests were more inaccessible in the initial stages of the colony.
These settlements formed the first military barracks, charitable institutions (especially to distribute food, usually from Keniya), schools and hospitals.
Russia aimed to reduce infant mortality, disease problems and illiteracy within the region so that it would become more economically productive in the medium-long term.
Since a healthier integrated region and workers in better conditions meant more space and freedom, so that Russia could more adequately access the local resources.
It was a long road, so it was best to start early.
*******
[Cossacks]
What is a Cossack?
The Cossacks were a particular group (of various socio-economic classes and ethno-cultural backgrounds, which included Russians to Belarusians, South Slavs, Tatars, Mordovians, Bashkirs, Kalmyks, Nogais, Kumyks, Chechens, Armenians, Turkmens, Buryats, and other peoples, such as the Manchurian Cossack Host), communities with their cultural-governmental peculiarities and that rendered notable military service to the Russian emperors in exchange for certain privileges.
But there was a notable problem with the Cossacks in the 20th century ... They were becoming obsolete as military units.
With the military reform of Tsar Alexander III onwards, the modernization of the Russian forces meant important advances in the mechanization and motorization of the troops of the Russian Empire.
What de-facto had helped to 'kill' the conventional cavalry, outside of certain reconnaissance-logistical services or state ceremonies.
Obviously younger generations of Cossacks also modernized with these reforms, but there would always be more 'common' (non-Cossack) mechanized units than Cossack mechanized units.
Why maintain the privileges of a particular class when you can have similar forces (equal or even better) in much greater numbers?
Very similar to the situation that had led to the weakening of the nobles and noble landowners of the empire in favor of new politicians, military officials, capitalist-industrialists, workers and peasants.
The plan of Tsar Nicholas II and allies was to end the privileges of the Cossack class. While obviously the Cossacks would be kept within the military and the empire, they were simply no longer as necessary as a column of the empire's armed forces.
The perfect excuse was the fight of the old against the new.
Cossacks associated with the aristocracy and conservative circles leaned towards Admiral Alexander Kolchak and Cossack General Aleksei Maksimovich Kaledin, while more 'modern' Cossacks were affiliated with General Brusilov, Nicholas II and their associates.
On April 10 of 1918, War Minister Aleksey Brusilov began developing General Plans for future Cossack units (mechanized-motorized), which would join Medved units (armored vehicles) for rapid and infantry movements in the armed forces.
Supported by artillery, antitank and antiaircraft weapons, communication units and sapper-engineers.
Tsar Nicholas II soon endorsed Brusilov's plan about the Cossacks, which would mark an important step in the future of the Cossacks within the armed forces of the Russian Empire.
While Cossack units still existed, Cossacks were not always in 'Cossack Units' (there were Cossack citizens in conventional troops, the navy, weapons design and logistics-engineering, etc).
Tsar Nicholas II and Iosif V. Stalin also planned a civil reform within the Cossacks, for the establishment of a new legal code for the Cossack Hosts and Military Societies.
But this is for much later.
*******
[The Empire of Japan and Russia]
There are countries that have strange similarities within their great differences, an example is the United States of America and the Russian Empire, but another less used example would be the Empire of Japan and the Russian Empire.
Both monarchies with a notable conservative tradition, and considered great powers (especially Japan was considered one after successfully exiting the Visegrad Treaty, considered an 'equal' by Russia, which guaranteed less public racism on the part of the Allied Bloc).
But that they were going through important internal transformations, the problem was the circumstances and results of said transformations.
Japan was in a truly unstable situation, despite the economic recoveries with the end of the Great Depression and the victories in Visegrad.
This is due to various internal and external factors:
* The Imperial Federation had gained control over most of Indonesia and the Philippines, important vectors that threatened Japan economically and militarily, as well as strategic points.
If the Thai Canal or Taiwan were attacked, there could be enormous consequences for Japan's military security and its national economy.
* Increase in National Security Measures.
What are NSMs?
The series of measures that the Imperial Japanese Navy began to use to: 1) Control the government and police forces, due to the increase in violence between the IJN and the Imperial Japanese Army; 2) Ignore the devices of constitutional and popular government (such as the Diet); 3) Crush labor strikes and other popular movements against the military authorities.
This supposed to some extent the extension of military violence against civilians and the popular government, which even led to the death of some of the victims (students in particular). As a result, the increase in problems within the empire.
* Commitments of the Empire of Japan and its ambitions in Vietnam / Indochina (Laos and Vietnam), in addition to the consequences of Japanese imperialism in the Philippines.
That involved loads and struggles at various levels.
* The increase in reactionism within the IJN as a result of the fight against the IJA and anti-military elements of the government (such as the Diet).
Added to this was a formalization of sentiments against the monarchy, the NSM and strikes did not help to keep the popular monarchy or the economy in good condition.
The rule of Emperor Taisho started badly enough, and continued badly.
Currently we can say everything is connected in several ways.
The Latin revolutions that established the first socialist states were an inspiration to many people with various doctrines. People willing to fight for the workers or liberation from European colonialism.
The Imperial Federation and the Philippines were of importance in all this, the consolidation of conservative-nationalist authoritarianism supported by the military in the Asia-Pacific region had important consequences.
And Russia, that helped to form the region in various way due to interference, war or just its existence.
An example of the socialist movement against the Imperial Federation was the Communist Party of Indonesia (Partai Komunis Indonesia), led by natives and the Dutch endricus Josephus Franciscus Marie Sneevliet, better known as Henk Sneevliet.
Sneevliet was a real headache for the anti-socialists of the Asia-Pacific region, bigger than everyone might think.
He not only successfully organized the Indonesian socialist resistance against foreign and capitalist-conservative powers, but he also actively contributed to the development of similar movements.
He [Sneevliet] supported the Filipino Socialists, American Communists, and helped the formation of the Japanese Communist Party and the Communist Party of China.
In this case, on April 5, 1918, Sneevliet accompanied by Sen Katayama (born Yabuki Sugataro), founded the Japanese Communist Party.
Similar to Russia, Japan (a traditional conservative monarchy) developed a growing socialist movement due to trade unions and various developments inside the country.
The problem was how the Marxist socialism defended by Sneevliet and Sen Katayama (among others), would adapt the theory of Scientific Socialism to the Japanese cultural, economic, social and political realities of the time.
Originally there were some doubts, many Japanese leftists were 'Christian socialists' (kinda) or anarchists, opposed to the theories and practices advocated by Sen Katayama and the Japanese Communist Party.
But soon the party became the Japanese left, sweeping away ideological opponents (anarchists in particular) with success.
Sen Katayama was strongly inspired by the success of the socialist revolutions in Europe and the communists in India for the creation of a socialist society in Japan.
Where the Russian Empire adopted a strange socialism with Russian characteristics (where somehow the RSDLP and Russian traditionalism managed to co-exist), Japan began to descend into serious trouble.
Problems related to the aforementioned issues, external pressures that threatened or sought to weaken Japan, influences from historical foreign events, internal problems (fighting between the armed forces, fighting between the armed forces and the government, the military against civilians, civilians against civilians, etc. ) and more.
The IJN obviously began to attack the Japanese Communist Party, which began to become a serious threat with major developments in the East Asia and Asia-Pacific region.
*
In short, Japan and Russia are two countries more similar than it seems.
They began as little-unified territories that expanded considerably to become great powers, with influences in their nearby regions.
And that due to various internal and external situations, they developed powerful left movements that had notable influences on their developments despite being very 'traditional' (monarchies with important religious-cultural components).
But they differ in historical approaches and developments, among some other things.
As a result of these formations and international events, the situations in the Eurasia region were changing considerably.
Both in cultural and technological developments and balance of power. Power was moving more and more, slowly but steadily, east and west.
From Western Europe to Russia and the United States in particular.
In the midst of this, liberation or revolution movements were formed in various parts of Asia, and there was growing instability or continuing instability in various foci (such as southern China or the Philippines).
As a result there was a continuous interconnection between the Russian Far East, the Russosphere and Japan.
Because Russia and the Russosphere, more specifically Thailand and Russian Indonesia, controlled the Thai Canal, which formed an important trade route for Japan.
Vladivostok was de facto one of the most important ports in the region, with a huge community of East Asians, especially Japanese and Koreans.
Which is why there is also a notable Asian influence and companies of Japanese origin in the region, dating back to the early 20th century and only growing with future events.
*******
[Circle of Nicholas II: Capitalism!]
May 2 (Gregorian Calendar), year 1918, Moscow, Russian Empire.
"Chasing individuals one by one is complicated. Fortunately, the movement of money always leaves a trace. That is why we have been able to detect important movements of the National Salvation Directorate." Felix Dzerzhinsky, one of the directors of the Okhrana, mentioned in a meeting with his associates.
In a short time, a list is presented about the money schemes related to Kolchak and others, mainly from some of the richest families in the Russian Empire.
Yusupov, Skoropadskyi, Ryabushinsky, Morozovs, Tretyakov, Putilov, and Vyshnegradsky.
"Some of the wealthiest families in the Russian Empire. We are talking about land, industries and charity, among other material possessions and commercial enterprises." Nicholas II mentions before names, many quite well known within Russia.
"Very good. What do we do with them?" Savinkov and Ungern-Sternberg ask.
"Wait for the moment. Once events unfold, we'll see." Nicholas II responds. "If we talk about people, capture and prosecution is the proper procedure ... Now, if we talk about money."
"We freeze the assets of those involved and nationalize them, very simple." Stalin insists on the mention of economic assets, a sensible option considering the betrayal of these individuals to Russia.
"It makes sense, but we have to think about all that this means economically for Russia. Both in the domestic market and abroad." Kerensky and Mannerheim promptly mention.
It was obvious that despite state monitoring of Russia's internal problems, the situation would not be 'clean' and would bring certain problems that would have to be solved sooner or later.
*
During the Industrial Revolution in Russia (which came later than in the rest of Europe), the state also happened to provide certain services and after several reforms during the Alexandrian period and the reign of Nicholas II, these services and subsidies for the population were expanded.
Electricity, water, public transportation, education, and other assets (such as social programs) that the state provided through money raised from taxes and business activity.
In this process, there was naturally the nationalization or statization of certain assets or private companies, so the empire already had the mechanisms or experience to deal with this situation.
But even so, the totality of the effects of future events was unknown or unpredictable to the authorities of the Russian Empire, led by Tsar Nicholas II.
The Imperial Crisis was one of the biggest problems of the Russian Empire internally during the 20th century, due to numerous factors, such as polarization between the empire's population, internal struggle between the military and the civil government, etc.
*******
[International]
April 5, Nicholas II officially becomes monarch of Madagaskar.
April 7, British operations in Balochistan have some 'success' in punitive actions against the Marri and Khetran tribes, with the majority of rebel groups surrendering to the British authorities.
However the major objectives of the British failed and certain rebel leaders-groups join the separatist resistance in mountainous north India.
For this and other strategic reasons, major movements against the Punjabi Communists fail.
April 13, Stepan Georgevich Shaumian forms the group of 26 Caucasians or 'List 26'.
A group of mainly left-wing Armenians, Azerbaijanis and Georgians, dedicated to the fight against the inter-ethnic problems of Transcaucasia, co-operation of the Russian Empire with Western Asia (Middle East and the Turkish states) and supporters of various socio-political reforms and economical.
In the next elections, the group won the mayor of Baku.
* Annex: Members included Shaumian (Armenian), Prokopiy Aprasionovich Japaridze (Azerbaijani), Yakov Davidovich Zevin (Russian), Mashadi Aziz-bek-oglu Azizbekov (Azerbaijani), Grigory Nikolaevich Korganov (Armenian), Azerbaijani Nariman Naimjav (Azerbaijani) , Ivan Timofeevich Fioletov 'Vanechka', Artashes Balasievich Karinyan (Armenian), Nadezhda Nikolaevna Kolesnikova (born Drobinskaya), Mir Hasan Kazim oglu Vezirov (Azerbaijani) and I. Sukhartsev, among others.
April 14, the Emirate of Ha'il creates the Economic Development Commission, a body dedicated to the research of resources and economic development of the country.
Historically it served mainly for oil exploration, urban development and secondary-tertiary commercial activities.
April 21, an earthquake hits southern California, United States. Just over $ 200,000 in damages, 1 death and several injuries.
April 22, Manfred von Richthofen later known as 'the Red Baron' meets the brothers Gregor and Otto Strasser.
Gregor is a veteran of the last years of the New Great War, while Otto is more of an intellectual.
With the resources of Richthofen and the Strasser brothers, the alliance begins to build a political group in the unstable politics of East Germany (Prussian Republic of Germany).
* [Pan-Arabism vs Regionalism]
April 30, the Emirate of Ha'il begins talks with the Kingdom of Egypt for greater political and economic integration between the two countries.
The particular plan of the Emirate of Ha'il is obviously the creation of a united pan-Arab state between them and Egypt.
In this way Ha'il would have a direct border with North Sudan and could expand its political-commercial influence to more parts of North Africa and the Mediterranean.
But obviously Ha'il's diplomatic attempts are rejected by the Kingdom of Egypt.
After years of colonialism and counting the 'particularities' of Egypt within the Arab world and Afríca-Asia, most Egyptian politicians and local movements defend an 'Egyptian' position over an 'Arab' position in state and international affairs.
So the current leadership and politics were against a unification with the Emirate of Ha'il.
Of course there are Egyptian pan-Arabs in 1918, but they simply did not have the force that Pan-Arabism had in Ha'il at that time.
As a consequence of this, the Emirate of Ha'il began to build plans for Egypt to join the Emirate through other methods.
There were darker and more violent exits than others, such as military actions, espionage or similar.
Ha'il was patient in this matter, Egypt was simply worth it and was extremely vital to the pan-Arabist plans.
*******
May 3, Dictator Gregorio del Pilar establishes the persecution of various dissident elements and considered problematic within Philippine universities (soon expanding in general to the educational system).
This is because the country is in a continuous state of civil war due to socialists and other groups.
The education system is considered to be full of leftists and promotes dangerous ideas (such as support for reforms) for the nationalist government of the Philippines.
May 9, begins the saga of the "Unholy Documents", written by the Polish Ferdinand Anthony Ossendowski, born in the Russian Empire.
Unholy Documents is a 68-book saga of fiction, adventure, and fantasy, dealing with various mystical lands (primarily Agartha and Shambhala) and alternate history.
The saga was especially popular between the 1910s and 1950s, with some of the most successful Polish-Russian books from the Empire and the international sphere, but the author left some stains on his legacy (both by personality, due to vengeful attacks on personal opponents , forgery, etc. As well as participation in certain events, among them Ossendowski briefly worked for Kolchak).
Later, however, adaptations have been made with relative success.
May 14, in South Africa (Imperial Federation) Mayor Sir Harry Hands instituted the "Three Minute Break", which began with the daily firing of the Noon Gun at Signal Hill in Cape Town (capital of this constituent part of the Imperial Federation).
The ceremony inspired the introduction of the two-minute silence in November 1919.
May 16, lynchings against African-Americans end in Georgia.
May 20, expansion of the Northern Ireland prison system.
May 22, begins the series of unsolved murders produced by the Axeman of New Orleans, United States.
May 24, the South American Athletics Confederation is established, as its name well indicates, it is the governing body of athletics in South America.
May 31, a treaty is signed in Czechoslovakia about further movement between the borders of Czechoslovakia, Russia and Hungary.
June 1, the Illinois Centennial half dollar is created, a penny in commemoration of US President Abraham Lincoln.
With the reconstruction during the Ford administration, there was a growing commemoration of relevant figures in American history, such as Lincoln or the Founding Fathers of the United States.
Especially in art, architecture, symbols and other artifacts-arts that emerged during this time onwards.
June 7, the British Empire of Edward VIII and Louis Alexander Mountbatten initiates new direct tax laws and forced labor laws in its African colonies, which includes the arrest of various local leaders in various parts of Africa (one example is 70 chiefs of the Egba people in Nigeria).
With this the Imperial Federation keeps certain rebel regions down, but also continues to squeeze the African continent successfully.
The British are reopening the forced labor and logistics systems created by France long ago, and creating new ones.
With this London and its allies benefit from a significant extraction of resources from Africa, and put into operation important logistics for their future objectives in the Mediterranean and other parts of the world.
A particularly important example is its 'valve' for the extraction of resources from the Congo, which are set in motion towards West Africa (where important commercial positions are established) and the Ocean (where most of the international trade takes place).
The British 'economic miracle' continues.
June 9, death of Anna Dostoevskaya, second wife of the prolific writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky.
June 12, the Ford administration establishes new constitutions in the territories (Panama and Hispaniola) with the approval of a local referendum.
This allows the continuation of important plans in the region, such as the establishment of military-naval bases for the armed forces, private prisons and branches of large American companies in the territories (where small tax havens are also created).
June 15, ecological disaster on Lord Howe Island, part of Australia (Imperial Federation).
Black rats arrive from the Makambo ship to the island, causing an explosion in the island's rat population in the following years.
This means that various native species of the ecosystem (mainly birds) become extinct in the wild. It also damages the only crop on the island (kentia palm).
June 16, the 'Memorandum of the Seven' is produced, where various anonymous Arab writers based in Cairo (Egypt) call for the independence and unity of Arabia (independence from the rest of the world, unity among the Arabs).
This memo was an important piece of Pan-Arabism during this time.
Some today believe that it was motivated by the Emirate of Ha'il directly, but later information has revealed that the memo came primarily from people unrelated to Ha'il's pan-Arab ambitions.
June 27, the former Ottoman military Nuri Killigil creates the 'Islamic Army of Anatolia and the Middle East'.
General 'Nuri Killigil' had the goal of destroying the socialist government in Turkey and rebuilding an Islamic-Ottoman state in Anatolia and the Middle East.
Shortly afterwards he was executed by Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), Secretary General of the Turkish Socialist Republic. That he also purges certain military elements with the excuse that they were affiliated with similar activities.
Islamic extremists would turn General Nuri Killigil into something of a martyr soon after, although his sole intention was Ottoman restoration (as opposed to Ha'il, Russia, and socialism).
* He was the half brother of İsmail Enver, a failed politician of the late Ottoman Empire, and a writer of literature and poetry who settled in the Ottoman-Turkish diaspora.
June 29, New York City (United States) opens the Bronx International Exposition of Science, Arts and Industries, a world fair in commemoration of 300 years of the Bronx and one of the first post-war world exhibitions (which earned the exhibition some popularity).
The most prominent exhibitions were the United States, Russia, the Imperial Federation, Brazil and Ha'il.
June 30, Russian-born Zionist leader Chaim Azriel Weizmann tries to meet with the authorities of the Emirate of Ha'il to create more positive and productive relations between Arabs and Jews.
Hoping for the creation of a Zionist project in Palestine-Israel.
Of course it does not end very productively, because of Ha'il's young diplomatic service, the lack of international support for Weizmann and the opposition within the Emirate, which sees the Zionist project as a possible threat to Arab sovereignty over Palestine.
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