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章 31: February 2, 2023

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Resolution Guyot

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Resolution Guyot (formerly known as Huevo) is a guyot (tablemount) in the underwater Mid-Pacific Mountains in the Pacific Ocean. It is a circular flat mountain, rising 500 metres (1,600 ft) above the seafloor to a depth of about 1,320 metres (4,330 ft), with a 35 kilometres (22 mi) wide summit platform. The Mid-Pacific Mountains lie west of Hawaii and northeast of the Marshall Islands, but at the time of its formation, the guyot was located in the Southern Hemisphere.

A map of Resolution Guyot's bathymetric relief

Resolution is located in North PacificResolutionResolution

Location in the North Pacific

The guyot was probably formed by a hotspot in today's French Polynesia before plate tectonics shifted it to its present-day location. The Easter, Marquesas, Pitcairn and Society hotspots, among others, may have been involved in the formation of Resolution Guyot. Volcanic activity has been dated to have occurred 107–129 million years ago and formed a volcanic island that was subsequently flattened by erosion. Carbonate deposition commenced, forming an atoll-like structure and a carbonate platform.

The platform emerged above sea level at some time between the Albian and Turonian ages before eventually drowning for reasons unknown between the Albian and the Maastrichtian. Thermal subsidence lowered the drowned seamount to its present depth. After a hiatus, sedimentation commenced on the seamount and led to the deposition of manganese crusts and pelagic sediments, some of which were later modified by phosphate.

Name and research history

Resolution Guyot was informally known as Huevo Guyot[2] before it was renamed after the drilling ship JOIDES Resolution[3] during Leg 143 of the Ocean Drilling Program[a][2] in 1992.[5] During that Leg,[2] JOIDES Resolution took drill cores from Resolution Guyot[6] called 866A, 867A and 867B; 866A was drilled on its summit, 867B (and the unsuccessful drilling attempt 867A) on its platform margin, and 868A on a terrace outside of the platform.[2]

Geography and geology

Local setting

Resolution Guyot is part of the western Mid-Pacific Mountains, located west of Hawaii, north-northeast of the Marshall Islands.[7] Unlike conventional Pacific Ocean island chains,[8] the Mid-Pacific Mountains are a group of oceanic plateaus with guyots[9] (also known as tablemounts)[10]) that become progressively younger towards the east.[11] Other guyots in the Mid-Pacific Mountains are Sio South, Darwin, Thomas, Heezen, Allen, Caprina, Jacqueline and Allison.[12]

The seamount is about 500 metres (1,600 ft) high and rises from a raised seafloor[1] to a depth of about 1,320 metres (4,330 ft).[13] At a depth of 1,300–1,400 metres (4,300–4,600 ft)[14] it is capped off by a 25 by 35 kilometres (16 mi × 22 mi) wide[15] rather flat[14] and roughly circular summit platform[16] with a 25 metres (82 ft) high rim[6] and a moat inside of this rim.[17] At the margin of the platform, structures interpreted as sea cliffs or wave cut terraces have been found;[2] at one site there is a terrace about 200 metres (660 ft) wide, surmounted by a 25 metres (82 ft) high cliff.[18] Pinnacles and depressions dot the surface platform. The surface of the platform consists of limestone that is partially covered by pelagic sediments;[17] underwater cameras have shown the presence of rock slabs covered by ferromanganese crusts.[b][2]

The guyot rises from a seafloor of Jurassic age[11] (201.3 ± 0.2 – ca. 145 million years ago[21]) that might be as much as 154 million years old.[9] Terrestrial organic material on the seafloor around Resolution Guyot originated from when it was still an island,[22] and carbonate sediments swept away from the guyot ended up on the surrounding seafloor.[23][24]

Regional setting

Diagram of how an active volcano is accompanied by decaying inactive volcanoes that were formerly located on the hotspot but have been moved away

Illustration of how hotspot volcanoes work

The Pacific Ocean seafloor contains many guyots formed during the Mesozoic age (251.902 ± 0.3 – 66 million years ago[21]) in unusually shallow seas.[12] These submarine mountains are characterized by a flat top and usually the presence of carbonate platforms that rose above the sea surface during the middle Cretaceous (ca. 145 – 66 million years ago[21]).[25] While there are some differences to present-day reef systems,[26][27] many of these seamounts were formerly atolls, which still exist. These structures formed as volcanoes in the Mesozoic ocean. Fringing reefs may have developed on the volcanoes, which then became barrier reefs as the volcano subsided and turned into an atoll,[28] and which surround a lagoon or a tidal flat.[29] The crust underneath these seamounts tends to subside as it cools, and thus the islands and seamounts sink.[30] Continued subsidence balanced by upward growth of the reefs led to the formation of thick carbonate platforms.[31] Sometimes volcanic activity continued even after the formation of the atoll or atoll-like structure, and during episodes where the platforms rose above sea level erosional features such as channels and blue holes[c] developed.[33]

The formation of many seamounts has been explained by the hotspot theory, which suggests that the chains of volcanoes become progressively older along the length of the chain,[34] with an erupting volcano only at one end of the system. Resolution lies on a volcano on the lithosphere heated from below; as the plate shifts it is moved away from the heat source and volcanic activity ceases, producing a chain of volcanoes that get progressively older away from those currently active.[35] Potential hotspots involved in the formation of Resolution Guyot are the Easter, Marquesas, Society[9] and in some plate reconstructions the Pitcairn hotspots[36] although not all point at a presently active hotspot.[16] More than one hotspot may have influenced the growth of Resolution Guyot, and it and Allison Guyot may have been formed by the same hotspot(s).[37] The entire Mid-Pacific Mountains may be the product of such a hotspot.[8]

Composition

Rocks found at Resolution Guyot include basalt of the volcano and carbonates deposited in shallow-water conditions on the volcano.[38] Minerals found in the basalt are alkali feldspar, clinopyroxene feldspar, ilmenite, magnetite, olivine, plagioclase, spinel and titanomagnetite; the olivine, plagioclase and pyroxenes form phenocrysts. Alteration has produced analcime, ankerite, calcite, clay, hematite, iddingsite, pyrite, quartz, saponite, serpentine and zeolite.[39][40] The basalts represent an alkaline intraplate suite,[41] earlier trachybasalts[42] containing biotite have been recovered as well.[43]

The carbonates occur in the form of boundstone,[44] carbonate hardgrounds,[45] floatstone,[46] grainstone, grapestone,[45] oncoids, ooliths, packstone, peloids,[47] rudstones, spherulites,[48] and wackestones. Alteration has formed calcite, dolomite,[49] quartz through silicification and vugs.[50] Dolomite alteration is particularly widespread in modern atolls and several processes have been invoked to explain it, such as geothermally driven convection of seawater.[51] Dissolved fossils[14] and traces of animal burrows are found in some rock sequences[52] with bioturbation traces widespread.[45] Barite needles,[50] calcretes,[53] cementation forms[d] that developed under the influence of freshwater,[45] desiccation cracks[14] and ferromanganese occurrences as dendrites have also been found.[55]

Organic materials[e] found in rock samples from Resolution Guyot[56] appear to be mainly of marine origin.[58] Some of the organic matter comes from microbial mats and vegetated islands,[59] including wood[60] and plant remains.[14]

Clays found on Resolution Guyot are characterized as chlorite, glauconite, hydromica,[61] illite,[62] kaolinite, saponite and smectite.[39] Claystones have also been found.[62] Most clays have been found in the lower carbonate sequence, while the upper parts mostly lack clay deposits.[53] Some of the clays may originate from younger volcanoes east of Resolution Guyot.[63]

Apatite formed through phosphate modification of exposed rocks underwater.[64] Other minerals include anhydrite,[65] celestite, goethite,[62] gypsum,[65] limonite[50] and pyrite which is also present in the carbonates.[66] Finally, mudstones have been found.[48]

Geologic history

Cretaceous graphical timeline

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extinction

Subdivision of the Cretaceous according to the ICS, as of 2022.[67]

Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago.

Although radiometric dating has been carried out on volcanic rocks from Resolution Guyot, the basalts are heavily altered and the dates are thus uncertain. Potassium-argon dating yields ages of 107–125 million years ago while argon-argon dating indicates ages of 120–129 million years ago.[1] Magnetization data indicate that it was formed in the Southern Hemisphere.[68]

Volcanic phase

Eruptions in the area built a pile of volcanic rocks, including stacks of lava flows, each of which is about 10 metres (33 ft) thick, but there are also breccias,[f] intrusions and sills.[1] The lava flows appear to have been formed years apart from each other.[70] Resolution Guyot was also hydrothermally active.[1] This volcanic activity over 1–2 million years generated a volcanic island.[71] Volcanic activity took place in a tropical or subtropical environment and between eruptions weathering, soil formation and potentially mass wasting generated layers of clay, rock debris and alteration products[1] such as laterite.[72] Erosion eventually flattened the volcanic island to form a platform.[6] It is possible that magmatic intrusions (sills) formed later in the history of Resolution Guyot.[73]

Platform carbonates and reefs

Between the Hauterivian (ca. 132.9 – ca. 129.4 million years ago[21]) and Albian (ca. 113 – 100.5 million years ago[21]), about 1,619 metres (5,312 ft) of carbonate was deposited on the volcanic structure,[47] eventually completely burying it during the Albian.[74] About 14 individual sequences of carbonates have been identified in drill cores.[75] The carbonate sedimentation probably began in the form of shoals surrounding a volcanic island[76] and lasted for about 35 million years,[77] accompanied by perhaps 0.046 millimetres per year (0.0018 in/year) of subsidence.[78] It is likely that the present-day carbonate platform contains only a fraction of the originally deposited carbonate, most of the carbonate having disappeared.[79] During this time, Resolution Guyot underwent little latitudinal plate motion; from the magnetization it appears that it was stably located at about 13° southern latitude between the Hauterivian and Aptian.[80]

Its carbonate platform cannot be reconstructed as only small parts have been studied, but some conclusions can be made.[78] The Resolution platform was surrounded by barrier islands but featured only a few reefs;[11] unlike present-day atolls which were rimmed by reefs Cretaceous platforms were rimmed by sand shoals[81] and on Resolution Guyot drill cores into the rim have only found sediment accumulations and no reefs.[82][83] Analysis of the carbonate layers has identified that several environments existed on the platform, including swash beaches, lagoons, marshes, mudflats,[84] sabkhas,[85] sand bars and washover fans from storms;[52][78] at times there were also open-marine conditions.[85] Some environments on Resolution Guyot were hypersaline at times,[65] probably implying that they had only limited water exchange with the surrounding ocean.[74] Islands formed from sand bars, resembling those of the Bahama Banks.[86] Records from Hole 866A indicate that settings at a given site were not stable over longer time periods.[60]

The Cretaceous Apulian Carbonate Platform in Italy and the Urgonian Formation in France have been compared to the Resolution Guyot carbonates. All these platforms were located in Tethyan seas[87] and several formations in these three carbonate environments are correlated;[88] for example, the fauna identified on Resolution Guyot resembles that from other Northern Hemisphere platforms.[89] Analogies also exist to platforms in Venezuela.[88]

Present-day environments that resemble those of the former environments of Resolution Guyot

Very shallow water over a white seafloor with a green island in the background beneath blue sky and scattered clouds

A beach and shallow water, Cook Islands

Orange islands cut by deep blue channels ending in blue ocean in the upper part of the image and beginning in a whiter lagoon in the lower part of the image

Spaceborne image of mudflats and tidal channels on present-day Long Island, Bahamas; the former morphology of Resolution Guyot has been compared to that of the present-day Bahamas.

Vegetated green island rising from above the deep blue sea

Vegetated island on Suwarrow

Water temperatures in the early Aptian (ca. 125 – ca. 113 million years ago[21]) are inferred to have been 30–32 °C (86–90 °F).[90] The platform was exposed to southeasterly trade winds which left its northern side sheltered from waves, except from storm-generated ones.[91] These waves, wind and tidal currents acted to shift sediments around on the platform.[86] Storms formed beaches on the platform,[11] although the interior parts of the platform were effectively protected by the surrounding shoals from storm influence.[83] Some patterns in the sedimentation indicate a seasonal climate.[92] When the climate was arid, gypsum deposition took place.[65]

Through the history of the platform sea level variations led to changes in the accumulating carbonate sediments,[77] with typical facies and sequences forming in the carbonate layers.[93] The Selli event, an oceanic anoxic event, is recorded at Resolution Guyot[94] as is the Faraoni event.[95] The Selli event left a black shale layer and may have caused a temporary interruption in carbonate accumulation before the platform recovered.[96] During the Albian-Aptian some carbonates became dolomites.[97]

Life on Resolution Guyot included algae – both green and red algae[52] and species forming microbial mats –,[98] bivalves[52] including rudists,[99] bryozoans, corals, echinoderms, echinoids, foraminifera, gastropods, ostracods,[100] oysters, serpulid worms,[45] sponges[47] and stromatoliths.[85] Fossils of animals have been found in the drill cores.[47] Rudists and sponges have been identified as bioherm builders;[78] rudist families found on Resolution include Caprinidae[101] of the genus Caprina,[102] Coalcomaninae,[103] Monopleuridae[104] and Requieniidae.[105] Well developed microbial mats grew in some places.[106][107] Plant remnants have been found in the carbonate sediments,[65] probably reflecting the existence of vegetation-covered islands on the platform.[85] Vegetation probably occurred in swamps and marshes as well.[66]

Uplift and karstification

During the Albian to Turonian (93.9 – 89.8 ± 0.3 million years ago[21]),[108] the carbonate platform rose above the sea by about 100 metres (330 ft)[109]–160 metres (520 ft). This uplift episode at Resolution Guyot is part of an episode of more general tectonic changes in the Pacific Ocean, with a general uplift of the ocean floor and tectonic stress changes at the ocean margins. This tectonic event has been explained by a major change in mantle convection in the middle Cretaceous pushing the ocean floor upward and sideward.[110]

When Resolution Guyot rose above sea level, karst processes began to impact the platform.[111] The platform became irregular[112] and part of it was eroded away;[109] calcrete crusts,[113] carbonate pinnacles,[18] cavities, caverns containing speleothems and sinkholes formed[114] and exist to this day.[113] At this stage, Resolution Guyot would have resembled a makatea[g] island.[114] This karstic episode did not last for long, perhaps several hundred thousand years,[116] but structures left by the karstic phase such as sinkholes and carbonate pinnacles can still be seen on the surface platform of Resolution Guyot.[18] During periods of emergence, freshwater flowed through and modified the carbonates.[117]

Drowning and post-drowning evolution

Resolution Guyot drowned either about 99 ± 2 million years ago[118] or during the Maastrichtian (72.1 ± 0.2 to 66 million years ago[21]),[47] although a hiatus in shallow carbonate deposition appears to date back to the Albian[112][119] that may reflect a long pause in deposition or increased erosion.[112] The end Albian period was characterized by widespread cessation of carbonate sedimentation across the western Pacific.[120][108] It is possible that carbonate sedimentation later continued until Campanian (83.6 ± 0.2 – 72.1 ± 0.2 million years ago[21])-Maastrichtian times.[71] The platform was certainly submerged by Pliocene (5.333 – 2.58 million years ago[21]) times.[11]

Other carbonate platforms in the Pacific drowned especially at the end of the Albian,[121] for unknown reasons;[122] among the proposed mechanisms are overly nutrient rich or turbid waters, the disappearance of reef-forming species and a subsequent failure of them to return, and overly fast sea level rise.[18] Resolution Guyot was never far enough south to end up beyond the Darwin point at which carbonate deposition stops.[8] The Resolution Guyot platform rose above sea level before the drowning, and there is no indication that carbonate deposition recommenced when the platform subsided;[123] similarly other Mid-Pacific Mountains emerged before drowning.[92] There is disagreement about whether Resolution Guyot was close enough to the equator and nutrient rich equatorial waters to drown at the time when carbonate sedimentation ceased.[124][125]

After the drowning, crusts formed by ferromanganese and by phosphate-modified rocks developed on exposed surfaces at Resolution Guyot.[20] Several different layers of phosphate modification have been observed during the Albian alone[119] and this process may have begun when the platform was still active; water within the rocks may have triggered phosphatization at this stage.[126] The ferromanganese deposition probably only began in the Turonian-Maastrichtian,[71] when the seamount had subsided to a sufficient depth.[127] Manganese-encrusted Cretaceous limestones have been found within the pelagic sediments.[128]

As at other guyots in the Pacific Ocean[129] pelagic sedimentation commenced later; the foraminifera fossils indicate an age of Maastrichtian to Pliocene for such sediments.[38] These sediments reach thicknesses of 7.5 metres (25 ft) in Hole 866B and consist of a Quaternary (last 2.58 million years[21]), a thin early Pleistocene (2.58 – 0.0117 million years ago[21]) and a thick Pliocene layer.[130] Some of the sediments take the form of pelagic limestones.[19] In Paleogene (66 to 23.03 million years ago[21]) sediments ostracods have been found.[131]

Carbonates were dissolved and replaced by dolomite already during the Aptian and Albian. Around 24 million years ago at the Paleogene-Neogene (23.02 – 2.58 million years ago[21]) boundary, a second pulse of dolomite formation took place; perhaps sea level changes associated with global climate change triggered this second pulse.[97] The formation of the dolomites was probably aided by the fact that seawater can percolate through Resolution Guyot,[48] which may be responsible for the formation of fluid vent structures on the surface of the seamount.[132]

Notes

The Ocean Drilling Program was an international research program that aimed at elucidating the geological history of the sea by obtaining drill cores from the oceans.[4]

Ferromanganese crusts are structures formed by iron and manganese oxides and hydroxides[19] which cover exposed rocks on many seamounts of the Pacific Ocean.[20]

Pit-like depressions within carbonate rocks that are filled with water.[32]

Cementation is a process during which grains in rock are solidified and pores filled by the deposition of minerals such as calcium carbonate.[54]

Organic material includes bituminite, kerogen, plant-derived lamalginite,[56] lignite,[57] liptinite and land plant-derived vitrinite.[56]

Volcanic rocks that appear as fragments.[69]

A makatea is a raised coral reef on an island, such as on Atiu, Mangaia, Mauke and Mitiaro in the Cook Islands.[115]

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Sliter 1995, p. 15.

Watkins et al. 1995, p. 675.

Watkins et al. 1995, p. 684.

Schornikov, E. I. (March 2005). "The question of cosmopolitanism in the deep-sea ostracod fauna: the example of the genus Pedicythere". Hydrobiologia. 538 (1–3): 213. doi:10.1007/s10750-004-4963-3. ISSN 0018-8158. S2CID 24261323.

El-Yamani, John & Bell 2022, p. 1560.

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Baker, P.E.; Castillo, P.R.; Condliffe, E. (May 1995). "Petrology and Geochemistry of Igneous Rocks from Allison and Resolution Guyots, Sites 865 and 866" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.216.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

Baudin, F.; Deconinck, J.-F.; Sachsenhofer, R.F.; Strasser, A.; Arnaud, H. (May 1995). "Organic Geochemistry and Clay Mineralogy of Lower Cretaceous Sediments from Allison and Resolution Guyots (Sites 865 and 866), Mid-Pacific Mountains" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.220.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

El-Yamani, Mahmoud S.; John, Cédric M.; Bell, Rebecca (15 September 2022). "Stratigraphic evolution and karstification of a Cretaceous Mid‐Pacific atoll (Resolution Guyot) resolved from core‐log‐seismic integration and comparison with modern and ancient analogues". Basin Research. 34 (5): 1536–1566. doi:10.1111/bre.12670. hdl:10044/1/98098. ISSN 1365-2117. S2CID 248223664.

Firth, John (27 April 1993). "Examining Guyots in the Mid-Pacific Mountains". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 74 (17): 201–206. doi:10.1029/93eo00119. ISSN 0096-3941.

Flood, P.G.; Chivas, A.R. (May 1995). "Origin of Massive Dolomite, Leg 143, Hole 866A, Resolution Guyot, Mid-Pacific Mountains" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.229.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

Grötsch, Jürgen; Flügel, Erik (December 1992). "Facies of sunken early cretaceous atoll reefs and their capping Late Albian drowning succession (Northwestern Pacific)". Facies. 27 (1): 153–174. doi:10.1007/bf02536809. ISSN 0172-9179. S2CID 128544669.

Iryu, Yasufumi; Yamada, Tsutomu (December 1999). "Biogeochemical contrasts between mid-Cretaceous carbonate platforms and Cenozoic reefs". The Island Arc. 8 (4): 475–490. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1738.1999.00250.x. ISSN 1038-4871. S2CID 128968750.

Jenkyns, H.C.; Strasser, A. (May 1995). "Lower Cretaceous Oolites from the Mid-Pacific Mountains (Resolution Guyot, Site 866)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.211.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

Kurnosov, V.; Zolotarev, B.; Eroshchev-Shak, V.; Artamonov, A.; Kashinzev, Murdmaa (December 1995). "Alteration of Basalts from the West Pacific Guyots, Legs 143 and 144" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.068.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

McNutt, M. K.; Winterer, E. L.; Sager, W. W.; Natland, J. H.; Ito, G. (July 1990). "The Darwin Rise: A Cretaceous superswell?". Geophysical Research Letters. 17 (8): 1101–1104. Bibcode:1990GeoRL..17.1101M. doi:10.1029/gl017i008p01101. ISSN 0094-8276. S2CID 51837887.

Murdmaa, I.; Nemliher, J.; Bogdanova, O.; Gorshkov, A.; Kallaste, T.; Vasilyeva, V. (December 1995). "Ferromanganese and Phosphatic Hardgrounds on the Western Pacific Guyots Drilled during Legs 143 and 144" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.070.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

Murdmaa, I.; Kurnosov, V.and Vasilyeva (December 1995). "Clay Mineralogy of the Shallow-Water Deposits on Allison and Resolution Guyots, Sites 865 and 866" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.069.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

Pringle, Malcolm S.; Sager, William W.; Sliter, William V.; Stein, Seth, eds. (1993). The Mesozoic Pacific: Geology, Tectonics, and Volcanism: A Volume in Memory of Sy Schlanger. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 77. doi:10.1029/gm077. ISBN 978-0-87590-036-0. ISSN 0065-8448.

Röhl, Ursula; Ogg, James G. (October 1996). "Aptian-Albian sea level history from Guyots in the western Pacific". Paleoceanography. 11 (5): 595–624. Bibcode:1996PalOc..11..595R. doi:10.1029/96pa01928. ISSN 0883-8305.

Röhl, U.; Strasser, A. (May 1995). "Diagenetic Alterations and Geochemical Trends in Early Cretaceous Shallow-Water Limestones of Allison and Resolution Guyots (Sites 865 to 868)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.224.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

Skelton, Peter W.; Sano, Shin-Ichi; Masse, Jean-Pierre (1 January 2013). "Rudist bivalves and the Pacific in the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous". Journal of the Geological Society. 170 (3): 2012–2017. Bibcode:2013JGSoc.170..513S. doi:10.1144/jgs2012-017. ISSN 0016-7649. S2CID 128739401.

Sliter, W.V. (May 1995). "Cretaceous Planktonic Foraminifers from Sites 865, 866, and 869: A Synthesis of Cretaceous Pelagic Sedimentation in the Central Pacific Ocean Basin" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.202.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

Strasser, A.; Arnaud, H.; Baudin, F.; Rohl, U. (May 1995). "Small-Scale Shallow-Water Carbonate Sequences of Resolution Guyot (Sites 866, 867, and 868)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.228.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

Swinburne, N.H.M.; Masse, J.-P. (May 1995). "Early Cretaceous Rudist Fauna of Allison and Resolution Guyots, Mid-Pacific Mountains" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.207.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

van Waasbergen, R.J. (May 1995). "Sediment Facies and Environments of Deposition on Cretaceous Pacific Carbonate Platforms: An Overview of Dredged Rocks from Western Pacific Guyots" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.242.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

Watkins, D.K.; Pearson, P.N.; Erba, E.; Rack, F.R.; Premoli Silva, I.; Bohrmann, H.W.; Fenner, J.; Hobbs, P.R.N. (December 1995). "Stratigraphy and Sediment Accumulation Patterns of the Upper Cenozoic Pelagic Carbonate Caps of Guyots in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.066.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

Wilson, Paul A.; Jenkyns, Hugh C.; Elderfield, Henry; Larson, Roger L. (April 1998). "The paradox of drowned carbonate platforms and the origin of Cretaceous Pacific guyots". Nature. 392 (6679): 889–894. Bibcode:1998Natur.392..889W. doi:10.1038/31865. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4423865.

Winterer, Edward L. (1998). "Cretaceous karst guyots: New evidence for inheritance of atoll morphology from subaerial erosional terrain". Geology. 26 (1): 59. Bibcode:1998Geo....26...59W. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0059:CKGNEF>2.3.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613.

Winterer, E.L.; Sager, W.W. (May 1995). "Synthesis of Drilling Results from the Mid-Pacific Mountains: Regional Context and Implications" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.245.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

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章 32: February 3, 2023

HMS Argus (I49)

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For other ships with the same name, see HMS Argus.

HMS Argus was a British aircraft carrier that served in the Royal Navy from 1918 to 1944. She was converted from an ocean liner that was under construction when the First World War began and became the first example of the standard pattern of aircraft carrier, with a full-length flight deck that allowed wheeled aircraft to take off and land. After commissioning, the ship was involved for several years in the development of the optimum design for other aircraft carriers. Argus also evaluated various types of arresting gear, general procedures needed to operate a number of aircraft in concert and fleet tactics. The ship was too top-heavy as originally built, and had to be modified to improve her stability in the mid-1920s. She spent one brief deployment on the China Station in the late 1920s before being placed in reserve for budgetary reasons.

Argus in harbour in 1918, painted in dazzle camouflage

History

United Kingdom

Name

Argus

Namesake

Argus Panoptes

Builder

William Beardmore, Dalmuir

Yard number

519

Identification

Pennant number: I49

Nickname(s)

Hat Box

Flatiron

Laid down

1914

Acquired

September 1916

Launched

2 December 1917

Commissioned

16 September 1918

Decommissioned

About 1929

Recommissioned

30 July 1938

Reclassified

As accommodation ship, December 1944

Fate

Sold for scrap, 5 December 1946

General characteristics (as built)

Type

Aircraft carrier

Displacement

14,450 long tons (14,680 t) (standard load)

15,775 long tons (16,028 t) (deep load)

Length

565 ft (172.2 m) (o/a)

Beam

68 ft (20.7 m)

Draught

23 ft 3 in (7.1 m) (deep load)

Installed power

20,000 shp (15,000 kW)

12 × cylindrical Scotch boilers

Propulsion

4 × shafts; 4 × steam turbines

Speed

20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph)

Range

3,600 nmi (6,700 km; 4,100 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph)

Complement

495

Armament

4 × 4 in (102 mm) AA guns

2 × low-angle 4-inch guns

Aircraft carried

15–18

Argus was recommissioned and partially modernised shortly before the Second World War and served as a training ship for deck-landing practice until June 1940. The following month she made the first of her many ferry trips to the Western Mediterranean to fly off fighters to Malta; she was largely occupied in this task for the next two years. The ship also delivered aircraft to Murmansk in Russia, Takoradi on the Gold Coast, and Reykjavík in Iceland. By 1942, the Royal Navy was very short of aircraft carriers, and Argus was pressed into front-line service despite her lack of speed and armament. In June, she participated in Operation Harpoon, providing air cover for the Malta-bound convoy. In November, the ship provided air cover during Operation Torch, the invasion of French North Africa, and was slightly damaged by a bomb. After returning to the UK for repairs, Argus was used again for deck-landing practice until late September 1944. In December, she became an accommodation ship, and was listed for disposal in mid-1946. Argus was sold in late 1946 and scrapped the following year.

Design, description and constructionEdit

Argus had her genesis in the Admiralty's desire during the First World War for an aircraft carrier that could fly off wheeled aircraft and land them aboard. Existing carriers could launch wheeled aircraft, but had no way to recover them as they lacked flight decks. In 1912, the ship builder William Beardmore had proposed to the Admiralty an aircraft carrier design with a continuous, full-length flight deck, but it was not accepted. As the limitations of existing carriers became more apparent, this design was dusted off and the Admiralty located two large, fast hulls suitable for conversion into an aircraft carrier. Construction of the Italian ocean liners Conte Rosso and Giulio Cesare had been suspended by William Beardmore and Company at the outbreak of the war, and both met the Admiralty's criteria. Conte Rosso was purchased on 20 September 1916, possibly because her machinery was more complete than that of Giulio Cesare, and the company began work on converting the ship.[1]

James Graham, 6th Duke of Montrose, a director of the Beardmore company, proposed to the Admiralty a design, "A Parent Ship for Naval Aeroplanes and Torpedo Boat Destroyer" in 1912. The initial design had two islands with the flight deck running between them. Each island contained one funnel; a large net could be strung between them to stop out-of-control aircraft. The islands were connected by braces and the bridge was mounted on top of the bracing, which left a clear height of 20 feet (6.1 m) for the aircraft on the flight deck. Fairly early in the design process, the decision was made to delete the funnels to reduce turbulence over the flight deck. The exhaust gases were, instead, ducted aft in the space between the roof of the hangar deck and the flight deck and were enclosed by a casing through which cooler air was driven by electric fans. They normally exhausted underneath the aft end of the flight deck, but the exhaust could be vented through openings on the rear side of the hull by two large electric fans.[2]

In November 1916, the ship's design was tested in a wind tunnel by the National Physical Laboratory to evaluate the turbulence caused by the twin islands and the bridge over them. They were found to cause problems, but no changes were made until the ship was nearly complete. In April 1918, Argus was ordered to be modified to a flush-decked configuration after the sea trials of the carrier Furious had revealed severe turbulence problems caused by her superstructure. The ship was given a bridge underneath her flight deck, extending from side to side, and she was fitted with a retractable pilot house in the middle of the flight deck for use when not operating aircraft.[3]

Argus's stability had been a concern from the beginning. Despite having been originally conceived as a liner with a hull designed to minimise rolling, most of the changes made to the ship during her conversion added topside weight, raising her centre of gravity. Even the addition of 600 long tons (610 t) of ballast still left the ship with a very low metacentric height of only 1.6 feet (0.49 m) lightly loaded and 3.8 feet (1.2 m) at deep load. This meant she was very steady, but heeled noticeably when turning. The ship proved to be very manoeuvrable at medium and high speeds, but steered badly at low speeds and in wind due to her large surface area.[4]

Argus had an overall length of 565 feet (172.2 m), a beam of 68 feet (20.7 m), and a draught of 23 feet 3 inches (7.1 m) at deep load. She displaced 14,450 long tons (14,680 t) at standard load and 15,575 long tons (15,825 t) at deep load. Each of the ship's four sets of Parsons geared steam turbines drove one propeller shaft. Steam was supplied by 12 cylindrical Scotch boilers. The turbines were designed for a total of 20,000 shaft horsepower (15,000 kW), but they produced 21,376 shaft horsepower (15,940 kW) during her sea trials in September 1918, and gave Argus a speed of 20.506 knots (37.977 km/h; 23.598 mph). The ship carried 2,500 long tons (2,500 t) of fuel oil, which gave her a range of 3,600 nautical miles (6,700 km; 4,100 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).[5]

The ship's flight deck was 549 feet (167.3 m) long and her hangar was 330 feet (100.6 m) long, 48–68 feet (14.6–20.7 m) wide, and 16 feet (4.9 m) high.[6] Aircraft were transported between the hangar and the flight deck by two aircraft lifts; the forward lift measured 30 by 36 feet (9.1 m × 11.0 m) and the rear 60 by 18 feet (18.3 m × 5.5 m).[7] Argus was the only British carrier serving in the Second World War capable of striking down (stowing away) aircraft with non-folding wings because of her wide lifts and tall hangar ceiling.[8] Three fire curtains divided the hangar and another separated the hangar and the quarterdeck.[9] She could accommodate between 15 and 18 aircraft.[10] No arresting gear was fitted as completed. Two large cranes were positioned on the quarterdeck, beneath the rear of the flight deck. Petrol storage consisted of 8,000 imperial gallons (36,000 l; 9,600 US gal) in 2-imperial-gallon (9.1 l; 2.4 US gal) tins stowed below the waterline. The ship's crew totalled 495 officers and men.[9]

The ship was armed with four 4-inch (102 mm) anti-aircraft guns, two on the quarterdeck and one on each side of the hull. She was also fitted with two low-angle 4-inch guns, one also on each side of the hull. The rear magazine and the torpedo warhead storage magazine were protected by a total of 2 inches (51 mm) of protective plating on all sides, but the forward magazine and bomb storage rooms had only a 2-inch thick deck to protect them.[6]

Argus was laid down in 1914 by William Beardmore and Company in Dalmuir, as the Conte Rosso. She was renamed after her purchase in September 1916 and was launched on 2 December 1917, her building having been slowed by labour shortages.[11] The ship was commissioned on 16 September 1918.[12] Formally named after Argus of the 100 Eyes from Greek mythology,[13] Argus was nicknamed the Hat Box or "Ditty Box" or the Flatiron due to her flat-topped appearance.[14]

Service historyEdit

1918–1939Edit

After commissioning too late to participate in the First World War, Argus was tasked to conduct deck-landing trials with longitudinal arresting gear transferred from Furious. The first landings on the ship were made on 24 September 1918 by two Sopwith Ship Strutter aeroplanes from the Grand Fleet's airbase at Turnhouse.[15] The same month, the ship was used in trials to evaluate the effects which an island superstructure would have on flying operations, with a canvas-and-wood dummy island being installed with a smoke box to simulate funnel gases. By 19 December, 36 successful landings had been made by Ship Strutters and Sopwith Pups. Argus was refitted from 23 December to 21 March 1919 with modified arresting gear. The wires of the arresting gear had been lifted off the deck so they could engage the hooks on the undercarriages of the aircraft, but this prevented the use of the flight deck for any other purpose. The after lift was therefore lowered 9 inches (229 mm), which allowed aircraft to use the area when the lift was raised flush with the rest of the flight deck. Trials began in April and the lift was widened in October. Argus joined the Atlantic Fleet in January 1920 for its Spring Cruise carrying eight Ship Strutters, four Sopwith Camel fighters, two Airco DH.9A bombers and two Fairey floatplanes. Operational experience confirmed that the aircraft should attempt to land directly onto the arresting gear lest they be blown over the side of the carrier, as happened three times during the cruise.[16]

After the ship's return from its cruise, a conference was convened aboard Argus on 19 May to consider revised landing arrangements. It was decided that a longer system of wires was needed, and the landing well system was abandoned in favour of ramps that could be raised and lowered as needed. Powered palisades were also needed on the side of the flight deck to help retain aircraft aboard that had not engaged a wire. The revised system was successfully tested aboard the carrier Eagle later in the year and Argus' arresting gear was modified accordingly in time for the 1921 Spring Cruise, during which the ship carried ten Parnall Panther spotter and reconnaissance aircraft and three Fairey IIIC reconnaissance aircraft. In addition, the ship's after lift was permanently locked in the raised position and 150 long tons (150 t) of ballast were added to compensate for the additional weight of the equipment high in the ship. This cruise was deemed very successful as 45 landings were made, only two of which resulted in serious accidents, an accident rate comparable to those of land-based units. The time required to launch two aircraft and land one aboard was forty minutes during this cruise, primarily because the rotary engines of the time were very difficult to start.[10]

In September 1922, Argus, equipped with Gloster Nightjar fighters, was deployed to the Dardanelles as a response to the Chanak crisis. As well as operating her own aircraft, Argus was used to fly off Bristol Fighters that had been ferried to the Dardanelles aboard the seaplane carrier Ark Royal to an airfield at Kilia on the European side of the straits. (The aircraft could not be flown off Ark Royal since it was a seaplane carrier with no flight deck. The Bristol Fighters were transferred to Argus by crane).[17]

In July 1922, Argus was inclined to evaluate her stability in light of the additional weights that had been added since her completion and it was discovered that her metacentric height had been reduced by 0.83 feet (0.3 m). The Director of Naval Construction proposed to fit her with a girdle at her waterline to increase her beam and thus her stability. He intended to do this under the 1923–1924 Naval Programme, but this was delayed several times as the ship was needed for training and when she was finally modified it was under the 1925–1926 Naval Programme. Girdling increased her deep displacement to 16,750 long tons (17,020 t) and her beam to 74 feet (22.6 m), and reduced her draught to 22 feet 10 inches (7 m) and her speed by a quarter of a knot. The ship was also fitted with bulk petrol storage, new four-inch guns that used fixed ammunition, and new radio masts.[18]

Argus in the late 1920s

Argus usually operated about 15 aircraft during the 1920s. This was commonly divided up between one small flight of fighters (Gloster Nightjars or Fairey Flycatchers), one of spotters (Parnall Panthers or Avro Bisons), and one spotter reconnaissance flight with Fairey IIIs.[19]

The ship's hull was surveyed in 1927 and anticipated to be sound for another 15 years,[10] and she relieved Hermes on the China Station from 1 September to 20 March 1928.[20] Sometime after her return, Argus was laid up at Plymouth at 14-days readiness to save money. Since she was completed before 9 December 1921, the Washington Naval Treaty classified her as an experimental aircraft carrier and thus she did not need to be scrapped to release treaty-limited tonnage for new construction. The ship was reduced to Extended Reserve (four months readiness) at Rosyth in September 1932. In February 1936, it was decided to refit the ship as a tender for Queen Bee target drones. The opportunity was taken to widen her flight deck by 10 feet (3 m) and replace her old boilers with destroyer-type boilers which could generate more steam than her turbines could handle. The boilers were taken from scrapped destroyers of the V and W class which were being broken up at Inverkeithing.[21] The ship was intended to have one hydro-pneumatic aircraft catapult, but this was instead diverted to Ark Royal. Since Argus was now classified as a naval auxiliary, her four-inch guns were removed. Her refit was completed on 30 July 1938 and she underwent sea trials the following month.[14][22] She was classified as a Target Aeroplane Carrier and recommissioned on 11 August 1938 with Captain W. G. Benn in command.[23]

Second World WarEdit

After recommissioning, Argus served as a training carrier to allow pilots to practice their deck-landing skills. She was carrying out this duty in the Gulf of Lion when the Second World War began. By April 1940, the ship had been rearmed with two QF Mk V 4-inch anti-aircraft guns on her quarterdeck, as well as three quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun mounts; one of these was on each side of her hull and the third was on the centreline of the quarterdeck.[24][25] Together with the battlecruiser Hood and six destroyers, Argus escorted Convoy US-3, loaded with Australian and New Zealand troops, to the United Kingdom in mid-June.[26] A week later, she ferried Supermarine Walrus amphibians of 701 Squadron to Reykjavík, Iceland. Argus loaded a dozen Hawker Hurricane and two Blackburn Skua fighters of 418 Flight RAF in late July for delivery to Malta as part of Operation Hurry. Escorted by Ark Royal, three battleships, two cruisers and 10 destroyers, the ship flew them off without incident on 2 August 1940 from a point west of Sicily, although two of the Hurricanes crashed on landing.[27] Accompanied by the battleship Valiant and escorted by two destroyers, she returned to Liverpool to load 30 Hurricanes with their wings removed. Argus sailed on 22 August and arrived at Takoradi on the Gold Coast on 5 September where her aircraft were off-loaded. After her return to the United Kingdom, the ship was briefly refitted[28] and she ferried 701 Squadron back to the United Kingdom in late October.[29]

On 11 November, Argus sailed again from Liverpool with a deck-load of a dozen Hurricanes and two Skuas for delivery to Malta (Operation White). She rendezvoused with Force H four days later and launched the aircraft on the morning of 17 November. Eight of the Hurricanes ran out of fuel en route due to headwinds and one Skua was forced to crash land on Sicily after it had been damaged by Italian flak. In mid-December, the ship embarked six Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers of 821X Squadron for delivery to Gibraltar and another pair of Swordfish from 825 Squadron for self-defence. The carrier rendezvoused with Furious and Convoy WS-5A before the combined force was discovered by the German cruiser Admiral Hipper on 25 December, but little damage was inflicted by Hipper before she was driven off by the escorts. No air strike could be flown against the German cruiser because the Swordfish were embarked in Argus with bombs that they could not carry and the torpedoes were aboard Furious.[30] After Furious's Skuas had flown off to search for Hipper, space was cleared to allow Argus' Swordfish to load the torpedoes, but the Skuas could not locate Hipper because of the poor visibility. Argus delivered 821X Squadron to Gibraltar and was back in the United Kingdom by 14 January 1941.[30]

Five Sea Hurricanes and a single Seafire lined up in the hangar, c. 1942–1944

In March, the carrier loaded a dozen Hurricane IIs and three Skuas and delivered them to Gibraltar on 29 March, where they were loaded onto Ark Royal and flown off to Malta a few days later. She returned to the United Kingdom on 11 April and loaded six replacement Swordfish as well as six Swordfish of 812 Squadron for self-defence. After a brief refit, Argus sailed on 14 April for Gibraltar to transfer the replacements to Ark Royal. She arrived on 24 April and began a two-week refit after the aircraft were transferred. The ship was back in the United Kingdom, loading another batch of Hurricanes bound for Gibraltar. Three Fulmars of 800X Squadron were also embarked to protect the ship against the Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condors that patrolled the Bay of Biscay and the Eastern Atlantic. The carrier arrived on 31 May and disembarked all her aircraft, including 800X Squadron. On her return to the United Kingdom she began a refit.[31]

In late August to early September, Argus transported 24 Hurricanes of No. 151 Wing RAF to Murmansk, Russia.[32][33] She then ferried a dozen Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers of 828 Squadron to Gibraltar on 30 September for eventual delivery to Malta. She was to ferry the fighters of 804 Squadron on her return trip to England, but this was cancelled. Eventually, the ship loaded some damaged aircraft and accompanied Eagle back to the United Kingdom on 20 October. Argus loaded more Hurricanes for Gibraltar and also embarked a pair of Swordfish from 818 Squadron and two Sea Hurricanes from 804X Squadron for self-defence. The ship arrived on 8 November and she transferred some of her Hurricanes to Ark Royal. Two days later, the two carriers, in Operation Perpetual, sailed to the west of Sicily and flew off their 37 Hurricanes; three of the fighters were lost en route. Ark Royal was torpedoed and sunk during the return to Gibraltar, which forced Argus to remain there to provide cover for Force H as the sole carrier available.[34]

1942–1946Edit

Force H was recalled to the United Kingdom in January and Argus loaded 12 Swordfish of 812 Squadron for her own protection. Whilst in the United Kingdom, she loaded some Supermarine Spitfire fighters and returned to Gibraltar on 24 February. There, the ship transferred the Spitfires to Eagle and embarked nine Fairey Fulmar fighters of 807 Squadron. The plan for Operation Spotter I was for Argus to provide fighter cover for Eagle as she flew off the Spitfires for Malta, but the operation had to be cancelled when the long-range fuel tanks of the Spitfires proved defective. The problems were not rectified until 7 March, when the 15 Spitfires were successfully flown off. During Operation Picket I, nine more Spitfires were flown off by Eagle on 21 March whilst a dozen Sea Hurricane IIBs from 804 Squadron provided air cover from Argus. The two carriers repeated the delivery on 29 March when Eagle flew off seven more Spitfires whilst 807 Squadron provided air cover from Argus. The latter ship also carried six Albacores bound for Malta as well, but the weather deteriorated over Malta and their fly-off was cancelled.[35]

Another attempt to deliver the Albacores and more Spitfires was made during Operation LB. As usual, Argus provided the air cover with a dozen Fulmars from 807 Squadron and Eagle ferried the Albacores and 17 Spitfires to their take-off point for Malta on 19 May.[36] The Spitfires were flown off successfully, but the engines of the Albacores all began to overheat and they were forced to return to the carrier. Examination of the aircraft revealed that their air coolers had been set to "Winter" rather than "Summer". One of the Fulmars was shot down by Vichy French Dewoitine D.520 fighters as it attempted to protect the crew of a Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boat that had been shot down earlier.[37] By this time the ship's Vickers .50-calibre machine guns had been replaced by 13 Oerlikon 20 mm light anti-aircraft guns.[24]

Afterwards, the ship returned to the UK to ferry 801 Squadron to Gibraltar and delivered the unit on 7 June. Together with Eagle, Argus was tasked to provide air cover over Force H as it covered a convoy attempting to get desperately needed supplies through to Malta later in June (Operation Harpoon). The carrier embarked two Fulmars from 807 Squadron, nine Swordfish from 813 Squadron and four more Swordfish from 824 Squadron to protect the convoy from submarines while Eagle loaded 20 Fulmars and Sea Hurricanes from three different squadrons. One Swordfish crashed while landing on 13 June and the wreckage was pushed over the side. Both Fulmars from 807 Squadron were shot down on 14 June by Italian bombers, but they likely shot down one Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 and one CANT Z.1007 bomber. Eagle transferred her Fulmars to Argus over the course of the battle and two more were lost later in the day. The ship was attacked multiple times by bombs and torpedoes during the battle without effect.[38]

Argus at sea during Operation Torch in late 1942

As part of the preparations for another resupply convoy for Malta (Operation Pedestal), Argus returned to the United Kingdom in late June to load reserve aircraft, including six Sea Hurricanes of 804 Squadron, for the other aircraft carriers involved in the operation and left the Clyde on 2 August for Gibraltar. The ship rendezvoused with the other carriers on 5 August for a three-day training exercise to work out co-ordination procedures before the operation commenced and 804 Squadron was deemed not ready for combat. It was ordered to return to the UK aboard Argus.[39][40]

The ship's bell of Argus in Bristol Cathedral

In November 1942, Argus was assigned to the Eastern Naval Task Force that invaded Algiers, Algeria, during the Allied landings in French North Africa with 18 Supermarine Seafire IICs of 880 Squadron aboard.[41] The ship was hit by a bomb on 10 November that killed four men. She and the escort carrier Avenger joined a convoy returning to the United Kingdom on the evening of 14/15 November that was spotted by the Germans. Later that morning U-155 torpedoed and sank Avenger, which was right behind Argus in the convoy. Argus was under repair for a month after she reached the United Kingdom, but required a more thorough refit that lasted from February to May 1943. Reclassified as an escort carrier after the completion of her refit, she was relegated to deck-landing training. She was ordered to be paid off on 27 January 1944, but this order was apparently revoked as she continued training until 27 September 1944 when the last take-off was made from her deck, a Fairey Swordfish.[42] In March, she was ordered to be converted to an aircraft freighter around the end of the year, but this plan was also apparently cancelled. Argus became an accommodation ship at Chatham[24] in December[43] and she was approved for scrapping on 6 May 1946.[24] She was sold to Thos. W. Ward on 5 December 1946 and arrived at Inverkeithing later that month to be broken up.[44] The ship's bell from Argus is preserved in Bristol Cathedral as a memorial to Canon Percival Gay, who was the warship's last chaplain.[45]

NotesEdit

^ McBride, pp. 73–75

^ Friedman, pp. 62, 65

^ Friedman, pp. 65–66

^ Friedman, p. 66

^ Friedman, pp. 67, 365

^ Jump up to:a b McBride, pp. 76, 86

^ Friedman, p. 365

^ Brown 2003, p. 115

^ Jump up to:a b McBride, p. 76

^ Jump up to:a b c Friedman, p. 69

^ McBride, pp. 75, 77

^ Friedman, p. 363

^ Silverstone, p. 211

^ Jump up to:a b McBride, p. 79

^ Hobbs, p. 44, MacKay, p. 49

^ Friedman, pp. 67–69

^ Halley, p. 38

^ Friedman, p. 67

^ Sturtivant, pp. 466–469

^ McCart, pp. 21–23

^ MacKay, p. 88

^ Friedman, pp. 69, 71

^ MacKay, p. 91

^ Jump up to:a b c d Friedman, p. 71

^ McBride, p. 80

^ Rohwer, p. 22

^ Shores, Cull and Malizia 1987, pp. 45–47

^ Nailer, pp. 152–153

^ Sturtivant, pp. 26–27

^ Jump up to:a b Nailer, p. 154

^ Nailer, pp. 155–157

^ Rohwer, p. 93

^ McBride, pp. 80–81

^ Nailer, pp. 159–160

^ Nailer, pp. 160–161

^ Nailer, p. 162

^ Shores, Cull and Malizia 1991, pp. 282–284

^ Shores, Cull and Malizia 1991, pp. 319–320, 325, 327, 329–330, 333, 336

^ Shores, Cull and Malizia 1991, pp. 451–452

^ Nailer, p. 164

^ Brown 2009, p. 62

^ McBride, p. 86

^ Colledge and Warlow, p. 20

^ Lenton, p. 96

^ "Bell from HMS Argus; c. 1917; BRSBC.163". www.ehive.com. Retrieved 2 December 2022.

ReferencesEdit

Brown, David K. (2003) [1999]. The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906–1922. London: Caxton Editions. ISBN 1-84067-531-4.

Brown, J. D. (2009). Carrier Operations in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-108-2.

Colledge, J. J.; Warlow, Ben (2006) [1969]. Ships of the Royal Navy: The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy (Rev. ed.). London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 978-1-86176-281-8.

Friedman, Norman (1988). British Carrier Aviation: The Evolution of the Ships and Their Aircraft. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-054-8.

Halley, Jim (June–August 1992). "Early Days on Argus". Air Enthusiast. No. 46. pp. 36–39. ISSN 0143-5450.

Hobbs, David (2009). A Century of Carrier Aviation: The Evolution of Ships and Shipborne Aircraft. Barnsley, UK: Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84832-138-0.

Lenton, H. T. (1998). British & Empire Warships of the Second World War. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-048-7.

MacKay, Charles E. (2017). HMS Argus 1914 to 1947: The World's First Flat-top Aircraft Carrier. Netherton, Glasgow: A. MacKay (Publisher). ISBN 978-0-9573443-5-8.

McBride, Keith (1994). "The 'Hatbox': HMS Argus". In Roberts, John (ed.). Warship 1994. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. pp. 71–87. ISBN 0-85177-630-2.

McCart, Neil (2001). HMS Hermes 1923 & 1959. Cheltenham, England: Fan Publications. ISBN 1-901225-05-4.

Nailer, Roger (1990). "Aircraft to Malta". In Gardiner, Robert (ed.). Warship 1990. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. pp. 151–165. ISBN 1-55750-903-4.

Rohwer, Jürgen (2005). Chronology of the War at Sea 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two (Third Rev ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-119-2.

Shores, Christopher; Cull, Brian; Malizia, Nicola (1987). Malta: The Hurricane Years: 1940–41. London: Grub Street. ISBN 0-948817-06-2.

Shores, Christopher; Cull, Brian; Malizia, Nicola (1991). Malta: The Spitfire Year: 1942. London: Grub Street. ISBN 0-948817-16-X.

Silverstone, Paul H. (1984). Directory of the World's Capital Ships. New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-88254-979-0.

Sturtivant, Ray (1984). The Squadrons of the Fleet Air Arm. Tonbridge, UK: Air-Britain (Historians). ISBN 0-85130-120-7.

Further readingEdit

Graham, James (Lord Montrose) (1952). My Ditty Box. London: Cape.

External linksEdit

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

HMS Argus (I49) (category)

Maritimequest HMS Argus photo gallery

Fleet Air Arm archive

"Ships That Mother Seaplanes: craft of the 'hush-hush' fleet may play a part in first trans-Atlantic flight", Popular Science monthly, February 1919, p. 80.

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